About two years ago I launched a series on Islam. I did it
primarily to educate myself some, quite frankly, and it was also
done in light of episodes like EgyptAir flight #990, a plane that
we know was taken down by a suicide pilot, while in the Middle
East people refused to believe this conclusion. Back then, Daniel
Pipes wrote of the public reaction in Egypt to the tragedy,
“Conspiracy thinking can be found anywhere, but in the Middle
East it dominates at the highest levels of the government, the
media, the academy and the religious establishment.”
The quote is fascinating in light of the early commentary we
heard from many Middle Eastern capitals in the first days after
the attack of September 11. “Oh, it couldn”t have been us,”
many said. Islam doesn”t promote such behavior. Well, of
course it doesn”t. But it”s also a good time to delve into the
history of the religion; consider it my attempt to help educate
those who may not be familiar with the origins and tenets.
—
Islam was founded by the prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the
early 7th century. More specifically, members of the faith, who
call themselves Muslims, date the beginning of the Islamic faith
from AD 622, the year of Muhammad”s “Hejira” (or journey)
from Mecca to Medina.
At the heart of Islam stands the “Quran,” the sacred book of
Islam. According to Muslim belief, the Quran contains the
actual word of God (Allah) as revealed by the angel Gabriel to
the prophet Muhammad. Muhammad is said to have received
these revelations over two decades, beginning AD 610 and
ending in 632, the year of his death. The 114 suras (chapters) of
the Quran are the source of Islamic belief and a guide for the
whole life of the community.
The central teachings of the Quran are that there is no God but
Allah and all must submit to Him, that Muhammad is the last of
His many messengers (which have included Abraham, Moses
and Jesus), and that there will come a day of judgement.
Muslims submit to the will of Allah through five basic precepts
or pillars (duties).
First, the shahadah, “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad
is his prophet.”
Second, salah, five daily ritual prayers. At the Mosque a Muslim
performs ritual ablutions (the washing of one”s body or part of it)
before praying to God in an attitude of submission, kneeling on a
prayer mat facing Mecca with head bowed, then rising with
hands cupped behind the ear”s to hear God”s message.
Third, zakat or alms-giving.
Fourth, sawm, fasting during Ramadan.
Fifth, Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Let”s formally define some of the above terms.
Mecca: The holiest city of Islam and the birthplace of
Muhammad. Only Muslims are allowed in the city. Mecca was
originally home to an Arab population of merchants. When
Muhammad began his ministry here, many rejected him and he
was forced to flee (the Hejira) to Medina in 622. In Mecca the
Great Mosque enclosed the Kaabe, the central shrine. Each
pilgrim who undertakes the Hajj (the pilgrimage) circles the
shrine 7 times, touching the Black Stone for forgiveness. The
Black Stone is said to have been given to Abraham by the
Archangel Gabriel.
Ramadan: Ninth month of the Islamic year, set aside for fasting.
Throughout Ramadan, the faithful must abstain from food, drink
and sex between sunrise and sunset. During Ramadan, the
faithful are also encouraged to read the whole of the Quran in
remembrance of the “Night of Power,” when Muhammad is said
to have received his first revelation from Allah via Gabriel.
During the 8th century, Islam experienced rapid growth. The
Quran was soon supplemented by the informal, scriptural
elaborations of the “sunna” (Muhammad”s sayings and deeds),
collated as the “Hadith.”
While Islam stresses the importance of the unity of the “summa”
(nation) of Islam, several distinctive branches developed, as
follows.
Sunni: The traditional orthodox branch of Islam, followers are
called “Ahl as-Sunnah” (“People of the Path”). It is followed by
90% of Muslims. Sunnis accept the Hadith and they differ from
the Shi”a sect in that they accept the first four caliphs (religious
leaders) as the true successors of Muhammad.
Shi”a: 2nd-largest branch of Islam. Shiites believe that the true
successor of Muhammad was Ali, whose claim to be Caliph was
not recognized by Sunni Muslims. It rejects the sunna and relies
instead on the pronouncements of a succession of holy men
called Imams. [In Iran, Ayatollah Khomenei”s Shiite theocracy
stressed the role of Islamic activism in liberation struggles.]
Sufism: Mystic philosophical movement that stresses the
capability of the soul to attain personal union with God. The
Dervish community is part of Sufism. Dervishes encourage
emotional displays and hypnotic trances, earning the epithet
“whirling.” [These folks scare the hell out of me.]
Life of Muhammad
So little is known of his early years, but I think I can leave you
with a sense of who he was and how he came to be the founder
of Islam.
Depending on the source, the birth of Muhammad is listed as
being somewhere between AD 570 and 580. [570 seems to be
the most commonly used date.] Born in Mecca, Muhammad”s
father Abdallah died before his birth and his mother passed away
when he was only six. Orphaned, he first lived with his
grandfather, Abd-al-Muttalib, and then by his uncle, Abu Talib.
We know that Muhammad grew up in humble circumstances, but
beyond that we know little. We”ll assume that he was a pretty
serious little kid, listened to his elders, read the classics, and did
whatever kids did back then.
Tales of Muhammad”s life suddenly jump from his birth to age
25, which, let”s face it, is much like the tale of Jesus. At 25,
Muhammad began working as a trading agent for Khadijah, a
wealthy widow of 40, and the two were married.
For 25 years after, Khadijah (another spelling for her is
“Khajima”) was Muhammad”s closest companion and she gave
birth to several children. Khadijah”s wealth provided
Muhammad with the funds necessary to lead an independent life
and it freed him to investigate and appraise the religious situation
in Arabia.
Various anecdotes of the time portray a world waiting for a guide
and a man searching for a vocation. Jewish rabbis, Christian
monks and Arab soothsayers predicted the coming of a prophet.
In his book “A History of the Arab Peoples” Albert Hourani
describes a monk, met by Muhammad on a trading journey to
southern Syria, who, “looked at his back and saw the seal of
prophethood between his shoulders.”
The Quran suggests that Muhammad was exposed to both
Christian and Jewish influences, most likely from traders and
travelers whose religious knowledge was sketchy. What seems
clear is that Muhammad was disturbed and disgusted by the
idolatry of his contemporaries and their lack of devotion to
Allah, the true God. He respected the disciplined life of Jews
and Christians, which contrasted with the materialistic paganism
of his compatriots.
Muhammad became a solitary wanderer. He often withdrew to a
cave under Mount Hira, near Mecca, for meditation and prayer.
And then one day, in 610 or 611, some contact with the
supernatural took place (known as the “Night of Power, or,
Destiny”). Muhammad was about 40-years-old at this time.
There are many different versions of what actually happened.
The one I read about most frequently has Muhammad receiving a
flash of divine insight, delivered by the angel Gabriel. He was
commanded to “recite,” and he felt his body compressed until he
could hardly breathe.
Hourani writes that Muhammad was told to recite the following:
“In the name of thy Lord who created,
created man of a blood-clot.”
“And thy Lord is the most bountiful,
who taught by the pen,
taught man what he knew not.
No, indeed; surely man waxes insolent,
For he thinks himself self-sufficient.
Surely unto thy Lord is the returning.”
For the next two decades Muhammad would receive similar
revelations. Initially, his ambitions were modest, he hoped to
bring his people a unified Arab revelation similar to that of the
Christians and Jews. At first, he had few influential supporters in
addition to his wife, his friends Abu Bakr and Umar and his
sons-in-law Uthman and Ali. Outside of this inner circle,
support was scarce.
At the core of his new religion was the doctrine that there is no
God but Allah and His followers must submit to Him – the word
Islam means “submission.” While there is nothing particularly
special about this message, it”s after Muhammad”s death that the
interpretation of his revelations gets interesting.
As Muhammad became more confident in the importance of his
mission, he openly attacked the prevailing paganism and its
leaders. This antagonized the powerful merchants who
controlled Meccan society. They feared that his reforms would
deprive Mecca of its unique and profitable position as a center of
both pilgrimage and trade. Eventually, Muhammad suffered
setback after setback.
Khadijah died around 620 and Muhammad was now seeking a
new place for him to take his message of submission. He found
his spot in the city of Medina, some 200 miles from Mecca.
Medina was a sophisticated city that had attracted many pagan
Arabs who eventually outnumbered its Jewish founders. It had
no stable government but was constantly torn by feuds between
rival Arab tribes. The leaders of Medina saw in Muhammad a
man of power, discipline, and spirit who could serve as an
arbitrator and conciliator rather than a religious leader.
Muhammad”s “Hejira” (migration) to Medina took place in 622.
This is the date that marks the formation of Islam.
Muhammad”s revelations changed in character at about this time.
They became less prophetic and religious and more regulatory.
Islam, the religion and church, became a community and a state,
with Muhammad as the lawgiver, the supreme judge, the
commander-in-chief, and the ruler.
Once his power was centralized in Medina, Muhammad
concentrated on the conquest of his native city, Mecca. His
forces defeated the Meccans in the Battle of Badr, 624, and thus
gained control of the vital caravan routes. Badr was Islam”s first
ordeal by battle, and the cause was greatly strengthened by the
triumph. To followers, the victory was deemed prophetic. In
630 Muhammad entered Mecca as a conqueror. His success was
now complete. The Kaaba (the central shrine) and other holy
places were now in Islamic hands. Religious faith replaced old
tribal blood ties.
When Muhammad entered Mecca he announced the principles of
a new order. “Every claim of privilege or blood or property is
abolished by me except the custody of the temple and the
watering of the pilgrims.” [Interpretation: Hourani]
In 632 Muhammad made his last visit to Mecca, with his speech
there being recorded as the final statement of his message:
“Know that every Muslim is a Muslim”s brother, and that the
Muslims are brethren; fighting between them should be avoided,
and the blood shed in pagan times should not be avenged;
Muslims should fight all men until they say, ”There is no god but
God.”” [Interpretation: Hourani]
Muhammad died in 632 and is entombed in the Holy Mosque of
the Prophet in Medina.
Lastly, I recently came across the following in “The Oxford
History of Islam” which I found enlightening. Rather than
attempt to paraphrase it, I”ll quote the passage.
“Perhaps because of their greater resistance to the presence of the
Muslim community in Medina, Jews are treated more harshly in
the Quran than are Christians. The primary offense of the
Christians is that they hold to a Trinitarian doctrine of God and
the divinity of Jesus. Jesus is referred to in 93 verses of the
Quran, affirming that he was born of Mary the Virgin, that he
was a righteous prophet, that he was given clear signs from God,
that he had disciples, that he performed such miracles as healing
the blind and the lepers and raising the dead by the power of
God, and that he will be a sign of the coming of the hour of
judgment. The Quran also says very specifically that those who
refer to Jesus as God are blasphemers, and that Christians saying
that Christ is the son of God is an imitation of Jews, who earlier
had said that Ezra is the son of God. According to the Quran
Jesus was only a servant; Jesus the son of Mary was no more
than an apostle of God. Quranic verses dealing with Jesus” death
have been interpreted differently by commentators, but generally
they have been taken to mean that Jesus did not die by
crucifixion. For Christians the Quran has thus served as a denial
of Jesus” incarnation and death on the cross and of the reality of
the Trinity….
“In 632, only months before he died, Muhammad apparently met
for the first time with a Christian community as such. An official
delegation of Christians, probably led by a bishop, came to
Mecca from Najran in Yemen. After engaging the Christians in
discussion, the Prophet is said to have realized that Christian
teachings are indeed incompatible with Islam, after which the
revelation followed that only Islam is acceptable to God as a
religion.”
Sources:
“The Columbia History of the World,” edited by John A. Garraty
and Peter Gay.
“A History of the Arab Peoples,” Albert Hourani
“American Heritage Encyclopedia”
“The Oxford History of Islam”
Brian Trumbore
**I”m traveling next week…Hott Spotts will return on October
18 and you can be sure the topic will be the Middle East and
Islam once again.
